lecture 2 col 4

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• white adipose cells are smaller or larger than brown adipose tissue larger
• size of white adipose cells micrometer 30-70
• is this white or brown adipose tissue: mitochondria and nucleus are squeezed to the side and the cell is filled with one large lipid droplet (write only white or brown) white
• how many percent are there of white adipose tissue in healthy adults 15
• adipose tissue which is not round (write brown or white) brown
• the adipose tissue has several lipid droplets (white or brown) brown
• the size of brown adipose cells in micrometer 20-40
• these adipocytes have greater amount of mitochondria and richer supply of capillaries (white or brown) brown
• more cytochrome content gives the color to: ... adipose tissue brown
• function of white adipose tissue is to ... fat store
• which hormone binds to white adipose tissue to stimulate motility of fatty acids (2 possible hormones) glucagon, epinephrine
• white adipose tissue carry out glycolysis through oxidative phosphorylation (TRUE OR FALSE) true
• most of fatty acids are made in ... liver
• fatty acids are delivered from the liver to WAT by ... VLDL
• WAT can get fatty acids to make TAGs from liver and intestinal lipids via ... chylomicrons
• WAT can ... fatty acids when other tissues need them e.g., skeletal muscles release
• in case of fight or flight hormone ... binds to WAT to break down TAGs, this binding give access for .. to the lipid droplets epinephrine, HSL
• function of brown adipose tissue is thermogenesis
• at time of birth brown adipose tissue makes up ..-.. % of total body mass 1-5
• in young adults, brown adipose tissue makes up less than .. % of body weight 0, 1
• in adults WAT can become ... ... ... due to cold exposure beige adipose tissue
• brown adipose tissue express ... ... uncoupling protein
• UCP1 allows .. gradient to be ... (förstöras) H+, dissipated
• when UCP1 is active it allows energy to be released as ... heat
• an imbalance in either food intake or energy expenditure can lead to ... obesity
• in case of obesity the storage capacity of white adipose tissue might become saturated (TRUE OR FALSE) true
• if adipose tissue become saturated of TAGs the lipids are stored in peripheral tissues, if these also become saturated, the lipids produce toxic reactive lipid species, this is known as ... lipotoxicity
• accumulation of TAGs in liver, muscle and pancreas does not only cause lipotoxicity but also, TAGs may disrupt normal functions of organ e.g., lowwer sensitivity to insulin (TRUE OR FALSE) true
• adipose tissue is also an endocrine organ and releases ... hormones called ... peptide, adipokines
• 2 examples of adipokines are leptin, adiponectin
• adipokines carry information about fuel storage to ... and other tissues brain
• adipokines nromally produce changes in fuel metabolism and ... behaviour feeding
• leptin is an ... ... appetite suppressant
• leptin is sent from ... ... to the ... adipose tissue, brain
• when adipose tissue ... they will release ... which will signal to the brain that we are not ..., this signalis that the fat should be used for ... production expands, leptin, hungry, energy
• leptin blocks the synthesis of ... and upregulates ... ... to produce energy/ heat (depending on WAT or BAT) fats, beta oxidation
• the gene that produces leptin OB
• the gene that encodes leptin receptors in the brain DB
• leptin receptors are expressed mostly in the ... hypothalamus
• when leptin binds to its receptor in hypothalamus, the hypothalamus responds with neuronal signals to ... fuel intake reduce
• the leptin also facilitate ... expenditure in brown and beige adipocytes energy
• what is the nucleus in hypothalamus called that leptin stimulates arcuate
• when the arcuate nucleus in hypothalamus is activated, ... nervous system is activated which release ... on .. receptor, triggering ... sympathetic, norepinephrine, b3, lipolysis
• when b3 receptor is activated (by norepinephrine), it increases ... which activates protein kinase A that affects gene expression of ... cAMP, UCP1
• protein kinase A activates TAG breakdown by phosphorylating ... and HSL (hormone sensitive lipase) stimulating lipolysis perilipins
• orexigenic hormones are ... ... appetite stimulating
• anorexigenic hormones are ... ... appetite suppressing
• leptin affects 2 other hormones: ... and ... neuropeptide Y, a-MSH
• neuropeptide Y is an ... ... hormone (orexigenic) and neuropeptide Y is ... by leptin appetite stimulating, inhibited
• a-MSH is an ... ... (anorexigenic) hormone and release is ... by leptin appetite suppressing, stimulated
• insulin can also inhibit ... by interacting with hypothalamus appetite
• the ... neurons have ... receptors and when it binds to these receptors ... will inhibit release of neuropeptide Y orexigenic, insulin, insulin
• leptin can make liver and muscle more sensitive to ... insulin
• insulin & leptin STEP 1: food intake stimulate production of ... insulin
• insulin & leptin STEP 2: insulin stimulates ... from dietary fats and will also ... neuropeptide Y lipogenesis, inhibit
• insulin & leptin STEP 3: lipogenesis will fill the ... tissue which will ... the tissue and this will lead to release of ... adipose, expand, leptin
• insulin & leptin STEP 4: leptin travels via blood to ... where it will inhibit ... .. release, this means appetite will go ... hypothalamus, neuropeptide Y, down
• insulin & leptin STEP 5: leptin stimulate ... nervous system by ... nucleus. this release ... on b3 receptor and stimulated expression of ... sympathetic, arcuate, norepinephrine, UCP1
• insulin & leptin STEP 5: protein kinase A will be stimulated which will cause ..., and since ... is upregulated energy will be released as ... lipolysis, UCP1, heat
• Our body ensures a balance between the degradation of lipids (lipolysis) and the build-up of them (lipogenesis), so our body mass remains more or less the same. TRUE OR FALSE true
• obese people might have ... resistance leptin
• if a person has leptin resistance, it wont help with ... injectiosn because there is something wrong the receptor --> .. gene leptin, DB
• if an obese person has problems with leptin ..., leptin injections will help because it is the .. gene that is defect production, OB
• adiponectin is an ..., which have receptors in the ..., when adiponectin circulates in the blood stream it makes other organs more sensitive to ... adipokine, brain, insulin
• adiponectin is released during ... starvation
• adiponectin increases ... ... oxidation and uptake of ... in muscle and liver fatty acid, glucose
• adiponectin increase sensitivty to ... insulin
• adiponectin action STEP 1: (when ATP delpletion) adiponectin activates ... which phosphorylates and inactives acetyl-CoA carboxylase (which in normal cases forms ...) AMPK, malonyl-CoA
• adiponectin action STEP 2: this means that less ... is produced, and since this molecule inhibits transport of fatty acids into ..., fatty acids can now be transported into ... for .. .... malonyl-coa, mitochondria, mitochondria, beta oxidation
• adiponectin action STEP 3: this means that fatty acids can enter for ... and thus produce ... when we are ... oxidation, energy, starving
• adiponectin action STEP 4: AMPK pathway also inhibits ... ... cholesterol synthesis
• AMPK regulates ATP metabolism by stimulating energy ... mechanisms and inhibting energy ... processes producing, consuming
• AMPK can be activated by ... energy levels and inhibited by ... energy levels low, high
• adiponectin is released from adipocytes when they ... due to long fast or ... shrink, starvation
• adiponectin activate AMPK which affects many different enzymes: e.g., upregulate GLUt1 and GLUT4 for glucose transport so energy can be produced TRUE OR FALSE true
• AMPK (which is activated by adiponectin) will inhibit fatty acid synthase, HSL, and glycogen synthase. in other words it inhibits energy ... processes. consuming
• AMPK ensures that there is a switch to energy production – from using energy to producing TRUE OR FALSE true
• mTORC can be stimulated by ... and growth ... nutrients, factors
• mTORC can stimulate ... uptake and stimulate it to go to ... ... pathway to produce ... which can be used for fatty acid synthesis glucose, pentose phosphate, NADPH
• mTORC stimulates ... ... and proliferation cell growth
• mTORC stimulates PPP which produce ... that can be used for nucleotide synthesis which is used for cell growth pentoses
• PPAR alter the expression of genes for fat and carbohydrate ... metabolism
• PPAR can bind its ligand and then this PPAR + ligand complex can bind to ... .. ... and work as ... ... which stimulates transcription of metabolic enzymes retinoid X receptor, transcription factors
• ligands for PPARs can be ... ... for instance fatty acids
• PPARs are 4 groups: alpha, beta, gamma, delta
• which PPAR is found in liver and adipose tissue and turns on genes necessary for differentiation of fibroblast into adipocytes and proteins required for lipid synthesis or storage (write alpha, beta, gamma or delta) gamma .
• which PPAR is activated by thiazolidinediones (drugs that treat type 2 diabetes) gamma
• which PPAR is found in liver, kidney, muscles, and brown adipose tissue and in liver it turns on genes for uptake and oxidation of fatty acids alpha This PPAR also turn on genes for ketone body formation during fasting
• which PPAR is activated by fatty acids, eicosanoids and drugs called fibrates (which are used to treat coronary heart disease by raising HDL levls and lowering blood TAGs) alpha (write alpha, beta, delta or gamma)
• which 2 PPARs are found in liver and muscles and are key regulators for fat oxidation by sensing dietary lipids and stimulate gens for fatty acid oxidation and uncoupling beta, delta (write the 2 PPARs and separate them with a comma)
• PPARs are transcription factors (2 words) which upregulate gene expression
• when PPAR bind their ligand e.g., fatty acids or eicosanoids, they bind to retinoid X recptor and form heterodimers
• PPAR + ligand + retinoid X receptor = heterodimer which binds specific regions of DNA known as response elements --> stimulating transcription
• which PPAR is extremely important in case there is a need of weight loss: delta this PPAR stimulates fatty acid oxidation in both adipose tissue and muscles, and it will stimulate thermogenesis and not ATP generation
• major target of PPARdelta is mitochondrial uncoupling (2 words)
• which PPAR will stimulate fatty acid synthesis and storage in both liver and adipose tissue gamma it will also increase insulin sensitivity in muscles
• which PPAR will be activated as a response to starvation alpha as it will cause fatty acid oxidation in muscle and liver for energy production
• ghrelin is a short term orexigenic peptide secreted in the stomach
• ghrelin is ... lived hormoned that makes us feel ... short, hungry
• before a meal ghrelin concentration rises a lot TRUE OR FALSE true
• ghrelin have receptors in the ..., heart and adipose tissue brain
• ghrelin ... appetite increase
• prader willi syndrome is associated with high levels of ... ghrelin
• PYY3-36 is an appetite ... hormone secreted from ... ... and ... suppressing, small intestines, colon
• PYY3-36 levels ... in the blood after a meal rise
• when PYY3-36 reach its receptors in the ... it stimulates the ... nucleus and ... the release of Neuropeptide Y (an appetite stimulating hormone) brain, arcuate, inhibits
• microbes cells function as ... ... affecting metabolism meaning it releases ... affecting metabolism endocrine glands, hormones
• most products of microbiota cells are ...-... FA that enter blood stream and trigger metabolic changes in ... ... short-chain, adipose tissue
• proprionate (an fermentation product of microbes) induces precursor cells to become ... and it inhibits ... in adipocytes leading to increase in ... adipocytes, lipolysis, WAT
• primary bile acids are turned into secondary bile acids by ... ..., and these can stimulate UCP1 production in WAT stimulating ... gut bacteria, thermogenesis
• microbiota metabolize phosphatidylcoline and L-carnitine and turn it into trimethylamine-N-oxide which increases transport of ... and decrease HDL cholesterol
• trimethylamine-N-oxide might cause ... accumulation in the bloodstream and also activate ... which will penetrate blood vessel wall --> leading to ... cholesterol, macrophages, atherosclerosis
• gut bacteria can be modified by ... diet
• anti-obesity microbiota will result in the feeling of reduced hunger because it decrease ... production ghrelin
• healthy gut microbiota can increase ... adipose tissue and it improve gut mucousal function by causing ... junctions brown, tighter
• healthy microbiota decrease risk of ... gut, preventing bad fermentation products from reaching blood stream leaky
• healthy gut bacteria will decrease risk of inflammation as ... will not be able to penetrate the wall and thus it will not be able to cause inflammatory response in blood lipopolysaccharides
• the nutrients that you can eat to feed healthy gut bacteria e.g., inulin (a polysaccharide with high fibre content) which promotes the growth of the healthy gut bacteria pre biotics (write pre or pro biotics)
• found in milk products. they are foods or supplements that contain live microorganisms intended to maintain or improve the “good” bacteria in the body pro biotics (write pre or pro biotics)
• pre and pro biotics will produce short chain fatty acids (good metabolites) which will bind to receptors on enterocytes of intestine and ensure secretion of appetite suppressing hormones --> so we eat less
• chronic obesity affects social budgets as it can lead to multiple medical complications e.g., diabetes
• diabetes which is caused by an autoimmune reaction in which the body´s immune system attacks the insulin producign beta cells of pancrease type 1 (write type 1 or type 2)
• diabetes symptom in both type 1 and type 2 is hyperglycemia and the body will try to get rid of the glucose leading to excessive urination and thirst
• in diabetes type 1 fat breakdwon is accelerated which leads to high production of ketone bodies which might lead to ketoacidosis
• an early mark for type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance which means that the body does not respond well to insulin
• in early stage of type 2 diabetes, the beta cell secrete enough insulin to overcome lower sensitivty
• in later stage of type 2 diabetes, the beta cells fails due to overstimulation which leads to inability to regulate blood glucose
• in intermediate stage of type 2 diabetes obesity is a common symptom. other symptoms are high TAGs and LDL in blood, low HDL, high blood pressure and high fasting blood glucose
• in intermediate stage of type 2 diabetes person might experience changes in blood proteins causing abnormal clotting, caused by high fibrinogen levels
• in intermediate stgae of type 2 diabetes, person might experience changes in blood proteins causing inflammation caused by high C-reactive protein levels
• how many percent of people with type 2 diabetes are obese 80
• in type 2 diabetes: Adipocytes become packed and unable to accommodate more TAGs this leads to increased amount of FA in blood. this enters muscles and liver and creates lipid droplets causing these organs to lose sensitivty to insulin
• Pro-inflammatory state: when the adipocytes is filled (expands) they will produce the signalling molecule MCP1 which attracts white blood cells (macrophages) which infiltrate the adipose tissue
• Chronic inflammation: macrophages start to produce inflammatory markers inside the adipocytes, e.g., tuber necrose factor α (TNFα). These TNFα produces small inflammations in the body, which e.g., affect the coronary system. These TNFα also favours (causes) the export of fatty acids to the muscles
• when fatty acids accumulates in muscles and liver it affects GLUT4 transport to cell membrane
• long term effects of elevated blood sugar: proteins can be glycosylated which measn that glucose bind to the protein
• long term effects of elevated blood glucose: a protein that usually is targeted for glycosylation is haemoglobin which leads to problems with delivery of oxygen
• blood glucose levels increase risk of ... ..., along with renal failure, damage to small blood vessels and nerves cardiovascular disease
• higher than what number is considered a high fasting glucose level 126
• low fasting blood glucose in men is .. and in women .. 50, 40
• microvascular complications due to diabetes: eye, kidney, neuropathy
• increased glucose concentration damage ... nerves
• macrovascular complications of diabetes involves brain, heart, extremities
• macrovascular complications due to diabetes: ... of blood vessels increase risk of reduced blood flow to legs narrowing
• microvasuclar complications due to diabetes: in eye and kidney ... blood glucose damage small ... ... which leads to problems in these organs high, blood vessels
• 2 types of treatment of type 2 diabetes: weight loss, exercise
• by exercise we can treat type 2 diabetes beacuse exercise activates ... (which stimulates glucose uptake and lipid oxidation) AMPK
• in extreme cases of obesity we can treat it with ... surgery where we remove parts of the ... system bariatric, digestive
• adjusting the ... will give the highest weight loss diet
• most effect on weight loss is done by combinations of: exercise, behaviour changes, diet
• to loose maximal amount of fat you should exercise at an intensity of ..-.. % of VO2max 55-72
• at intensity of exercise at ..-.. the ... oxidation is maximal 55-72, fat
• irisin is a ... hormone released by ... muscles and it will induce the ... of white adipose tissue peptide, contracting, browning
• irisin induces so white adipose tissue becomes ... and energy is released as ... brown, heat
• when irisin is released it will cause additional ... expenditure because it causes ... energy, thermogenesis

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