personality vt 22

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• Aphasia is an inability to comprehend or formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions.
• Brocas area An area of the brain’s left frontal lobe that is involved in producing words.
• child directed-speech Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences
• Expanding Adding information to the child’s incomplete utterance.
• Fast mapping A process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its referent so quickly.
• infinite generativity Ihe ability to produce and comprehend an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
• labeling A controlled setting from which many of the complex factors of the “real world” have been removed.
• LAD (Chomsky's) term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
• metalinguistic awareness Knowledge about language
• Morphology Units of meaning involved in word formation.
• Phonics approach teaching approach built on the idea that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.
• Phonology The sound system of a language— includes the sounds used and how they may be combined.
• Pragmatics The appropriate use of language in different contexts.
• Recasting Involves an adult’s rephrasing of a child’s statement that might lack the appropriate morphology or contain some other error. The adult restates the child’s immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence.
• Satire The use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness.
• Semantics The meanings of words and sentences
• Syntax The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
• telegraphic speech The use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives
• Wernicke’s area An area of the brain’s left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension
• whole-language approach A teaching approach built on the idea that reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.
• Affectionate love Also called companionate love, this type of love occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person.
• Anger cry A cry similar to the basic cry but with more excess air forced through the vocal cords
• anxious attachment style An attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive
• attachment A close emotional bond between two people
• avoidant attachment style An attachment style that describes adults who are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and, once in a relationship, tend to distance themselves from their partner.
• basic cry A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry.
• developmental cascade model Involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes.
• difficult child A temperament style in which the child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change
• easy child A temperament style in which the child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences.
• emotion Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is engaged in an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being.
• goodness of fit The match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with
• insecure avoidant style Children who show insecurity by avoiding the mother
• insecure disorganized child Children who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented.
• insecure resistant child Children who might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away
• pain cry A sudden, initial loud cry followed by breath holding, without preliminary moaning
• primary emotions Emotions that are present in humans and other animals, emerge early in life, and are culturally universal; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.
• reflexive smile A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep.
• secure attachment style An attachment style that describes adults who have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned or stressed out about their romantic relationships.
• securely attached children Children who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment.
• self conscious emotions Emotions that require consciousness and a sense of “me”; they include empathy, jealousy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt, most of which first appear at some point after 18 months of age when a sense of self becomes consolidated in toddlers
• separation protest Reaction that occurs when infants experience a fear of being separated from a caregiver, which results in crying when the caregiver leaves.
• slow to warm up children A temperament style in which the child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood
• social referencing “Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation.
• socioemotional selectivity theory The theory that older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain emotional well-being
• strange situation Ainsworth’s observational measure of infant attachment to a caregiver that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.
• stranger anxiety An infant’s fear of and wariness toward strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life.
• temperament An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.
• tend and befriend Taylor’s view that when women experience stress, they are more likely to seek social alliances with others, especially female friends
• triangular theory of love Sternberg’s theory that love includes three components or dimensions— passion, intimacy, and commitment.
• bicultural identity Identifying both with one’s own ethnic minority group and with the majority culture.
• big five factors of personality The view that personality is made up of five factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
• commitment A personal investment in identity
• connectedness Characteristic consisting of two dimensions: mutuality, which is sensitivity to and respect for others’ views; and permeability, which is openness to others’ views
• contemporary life events approach The view that how a life event influences the individual’s development depends not only on the event itself but also on mediating factors, the individual’s adaptation to the life event, the life-stage context, and the sociohistorical context
• crisis A period of identity development during which the individual is exploring alternatives
• ethnic identity An enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
• generativity vs stagnation The seventh stage in Erikson’s life-span theory; it encompasses adults’ desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation.
• identity Who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding.
• identity achievment Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment
• identity diffusion Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis (explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments.
• identity foreclosure Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis
• identity moratorium Marcia’s term for the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or vaguely defined.
• identity vs identity confusion Erikson’s fifth stage of development, which occurs during the adolescent years; adolescents are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life
• individuality Characteristic consisting of two dimensions: self-assertion, the ability to have and communicate a point of view; and separateness, the use of communication patterns to express how one is different from others
• optimism A style of thinking that involves having a positive outlook on the future and minimizing problems.
• personality The enduring personal characteristics of individuals
• perspective taking a The ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings
• possible selves What adolescents hope to become as well as what they dread they might become
• psychosocial moratorium Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration.
• selective optimization with compensation theory The theory that successful aging involves three strategies: selection, optimization, and compensation.
• self All of the characteristics of a person.
• self concept Domain-specific evaluations of the self.
• self esteem The global evaluative dimension of the self. Self-esteem is also referred to as self-worth or self-image.
• self regulation The ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others for help.
• self understanding The individual’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance of self-conceptions.
• trait theories Theories emphasizing that personality consists of broad dispositions, called traits, which tend to produce characteristic responses.
• activity theory The theory that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives
• ageism Prejudice against people because of their age, especially prejudice against older adults.
• avarage children Children who receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers.
• clique Small groups that range from 2 to 12 individuals and average about 5 or 6 individuals. Clique members usually are of the same age and same sex and often engage in similar activities, such as belonging to a club or participating in a sport.
• collectivism Emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, supporting interdependence of members, and promoting harmonious relationships.
• constructive play Combination of sensorimotor/ practice play with symbolic representation
• controversial children Children who are frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked.
• cross culture studies Comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and the degree to which it is culture-specific.
• crowd Adolescents usually are members of a crowd based on reputation and may not spend much time together. Many crowds are defined by the activities in which adolescents engage.
• culture The behavior, patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.
• disengagement theory The theory that, to cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society; this theory is not supported by research
• ethnocentrism The tendency to consider one’s own group superior to other groups.
• feminization of poverty Women’s lower income, divorce, infrequent awarding of alimony, and poorly enforced child support by fathers— which usually leave women with less money than they and their children need to adequately function—are the likely causes.
• games Activities that are engaged in for pleasure and include rules
• individualism Giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self, such as feeling good, obtaining personal distinction through achievement, and preserving independence.
• intimacy in friendship Self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts
• leisure The pleasant times when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing.
• neglected children Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers.
• peers Individuals who share the same age or maturity level.
• play A pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake
• play therapy Therapy that lets children work off frustrations while therapists analyze their conflicts and coping methods
• popular children Children who are frequently nominated as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers
• practice play Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.
• pretense Play that occurs when a child transforms aspects of the physical environment into symbols.
• rejected children Children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers.
• sensorimotor play Behavior in which infants derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes
• social play Play that involves interaction with peers.
• SES A grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.

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