English

Nouns Referrers to things or entities (people, animals, objects, places, abstract ideas)

Verb A word that designate events (like actions, states, processes, happenings, and mental or bodily activities)

Adverb A word that describes a verb (he sings LOUDLY), an adjective (VERY tall), another adverb (ended TOO quickly), or a whole sentence (FORTUNATELY, I had brought an umbrella.) Often end in -ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly the same as their adjective counterparts

Adjective Tell us something about the qualities or properties of things (age, colour, size). Usually go before nouns, can usually negate them with the prefix –un (unpredictable)

Phrase Words that form meaningful units, can consist of one or more words, sentences can be divided into phrases, a phrase always has a head -decides what type of phrase it is

Determiner Tells if we talk about something specific or not, comes before the head and the premodifier, most typically an article (a, the) or a pronoun (her, these), can be multiple determiner (his all five (sons))

Indefinite article A/an- introduces something new

Definite article The- Used when something the listener is familiar with, when the noun can be identified from the situation

Zero article Before uncountable noun: Rice is nice, before proper nouns: Charles is English, General statements with plural countable nouns: washing machines are essential, Abstract ideas: Beauty is only skin deep, Days of the week, months: Monday, April, Names of shops: Ica, Names of most countries, cities and places: Sweden

Premodifier Tell us more about the head (BLUE car, REALLY LOVLEY dinner), Most typical types of premodifiers: adjective phrases (blue, really lovley), Compound (pre) modifiers are usually hyphenated (Good-looking man)

Postmodifier Tells us more about the head, comes after the head, can be all kinds of things (verbs, adjective, adverb etc), are most typically dependent clauses (the man WHO WENT TO SCHOOL IN THE 90s)

Countable nouns A tree, many trees (can be counted)

Uncountable nouns Water, sand (occurs in the singular with some or with other expressions “one galloon of water”)

Main verb The important verb in the sentence, the one that typically shows the action of the subject (play, sing, write)

Auxiliary verbs Give additional information about the main verb (time, passive, aspect, attitude), comes before an main verb, Example: will, has, is (in the progressive is sitting), could, should (modal auxiliaries)

Primary auxilary verbs Be, do, have- Can be used both as auxiliaries and as main verbs, but with different functions: "We have (auxiliary) had (main verb) a good time"

Modal auxiliaries Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must. Have no infinite form (*to can), Have no past participle form (*have/had canned), Have no –ing form (*canning), Express such things as: ability (can), future (will, shall), obligation (must) permission (may), probability (may), volition (will)

Shall/will Shall is a problematic modal auxiliary for Swedish speakers, will is a better translation (Han ska lära sig engelska- he shall learn english/ he will learn english)

Finiteness A form of a verb that carries time, tens (i LEFT yesterday)

Tense Past, present, future

Simple aspect (tense) She learned (past), she learns (present), she will learn (future)

Progressive aspect (tense) She was learning (past), she is learning (present), she will be learning (future)

Perfekt aspect (tense) She had learned (past), she has learned (present), she will have learned (future)

Perfekt progressive aspect (tense) She had been learning (past), she has been learning (present), she will have been learning (future)

Aspect Simple (I learned), progressive (I was learning), perfekt (I had learned), perfekt progressive (I had been learning)

The progressive aspect Represents ongoing actions, Progressive: I am playing tennis (does mean right here right now) Simple: I play tennis (doesn’t mean right here right now)

Clause elements (satsdelar) Sentence functions (subject, predicate, direct object, indirect object, adverbial, subject complement)

Grammatical forms adjective phrase, noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adverb phrase, dependent clause

Adverbial A clause elements that give more information about the verb or comment the whole sentence. Manner (how is something is done), place (where it´s done), time (when it´s done). They usually comes in that order, comments is first in the sentence. Does not change the word order of the sentence.

Subject Someone who does something in a sentence

Predicate The action in a sentence

Direct object A word that receives the action of the verb, the main object of a sentence. Inside of the predicate. "Julia passed Maja the ball" direct object "Ball"

Indirect object The noun that receives the direct object itself, inside the predicate. "Julia passed Maja the ball" indirect object "Maja"

Subject complement Gives extra information about the subject

Main clause Contains a subject and a verb and can form a complete sentence by itself

Implicit knowledge Knowledge that allows us to perform something without being able ro explain why, an intuition

Explicit knowledge Expressive knowledge, information that you can document, store and explain

Prescriptive grammar Tells you how language "should be used", consists of rules

Descriptive grammar Describes how language is usually used

Word classes Different categories of words used in grammar, e.g. nouns, verbs, pronouns

One word, multiple classes "Looks" is a verb in "It looks good", but a noun in "She has good looks"

Common nouns Words for things, people and places (dog, professor, city)

Proper nouns A specific name for a particular person, place or thing (John, Sweden). Always capitalized

Concrete nouns A noun that refers to a physical thing, person or a place that can be seen, touched, heard etc (dog, shop)

Abstract nouns Nouns that refers to something non-physical (love, idea)

What phrases are there? Noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, prepositional phrase

Noun phrase order Determiner- premodifier- head- postmodifier: A (D) blue (PM) car (H) that belongs to John (PM)

Nouns with zero plurals "Look", many animal names- "fish" (same in singular and plural)

Nouns which are always singular Some disease "measles" and sports "darts"

Nouns which are always plural Clothes like jeans, pyjamas

Nouns that can be seen as singular or plural (subject-verb agreement) Can be seen as singular or plural (The Government is/are, data is/are, media is/are)

Passive constructions and progressive form (auxiliary verbs) The verb "be", "It is raining"

Negations and questions (auxiliary verbs) The verb "do", "Does John smoke?"

The present perfect and the past perfect (auxiliary verbs) The verb "have", "I have finished"

Expressions of probability (auxiliary verbs) E.g. the modal verbs "can", "may" and "must", "This may work"

Expressions of obligation (auxiliary verbs) The modal verbs "must" and "have to", "I have to go"

Should/would Should is often overused by Swedish speakers, would is often a better translation

Short event, the simple form (aspect) "They laugh" "They laughed"

Happening for a limited period, the progressive form (aspect) "They are laughing" "They were laughing"

Often/always happening, the simple form (aspect) "They always laugh" "They always laughed"

Grammatical forms Adjective phrase, noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adverb phrase, embedded clause, dependent clause

Zlatan kissed THE CAPTAIN The captain= direct object

THE CAPTAIN kissed Zlatan The captain= Subject

Zlatan became THE CAPTAIN The captain= Subject complement

Phonetics Study of sounds

Phonology Study of sounds in a specifik language

Articulatory phonetics All the movement that is required to produce sounds

Acoustic phonetics How the sound travels in the air, vibrations

Auditory phonetics How the brain reacts to the sound you hear

Phonotactics Defines acceptable syllable structure, consonant clusters and vowel sequences. Highly language-specific

Phoneme Smallest unit of speech that make one word different from another word, e.g. "Tap", "Map"- difference phoneme T and phoneme M

Consonants Stopping of the sound

Vowels Continious flow of air

Transparent orthographies Spelling and sounds are predictable in a language, e.g.Finnish

Opaque orthographies Spelling and sounds aren't predictable in a language, e.g. Danish and English

Voicing consonants Some consonants are unvoiced and some consonants voiced (P- no voice, B- voice)

Bilabials (consonants) P, b, m, w, place of articulation: lips

Labiodentals (consonants) F, v, place of articulation: upper teeth with lower lip

Dentals (consonants) θ (thin, bath), ð (then, that), place of articulation: tongue tip behind upper teeth

Alveolars (consonants) T, s, d, z, n, l, r, place of articulation: produced with the tongue close to or touching the ridge behind the teeth on the roof of the mouth

Palatals (consonants) ʧ (chip, chair), ʤ (gem, jeans), ʃ (share), place of articulation: produced by forcing air through a narrow constriction between the tongue and the hard palate, creating a hissing sound

Velars (consonants) K, g, ŋ (bang, ring), place of articulation: produced with the tongue raised towards the soft palate

Glottal (consonants) H, place of articulation: space between vocal folds

Stops (consonants) P, t, k, b, d, g, manner of articulation: block airflow, let it go abruptly

Fricatives F, θ (thick), s, ʃ (she), h, v, ð (these), z, ʒ (casual), manner of articulation: almost block airflow, let it escape through a narrow gap

Affricates (consonants) tʃ (cheap, rich), dʒ (jeep, jeans), manner of articulation: combine a brief stop (like /t/) with a fricative (like /s/)

Nasals (consonants) M, n, ŋ (morning, sing), manner of articulation: lower the velum, let the air flow out through nose

Liquids (consonants) L, r, manner of articulation: raise and curl tongue, let airflow escape round the sides

Glides (consonants) W, j, manner of articulation: move tongue to or from a vowel

Monothongs The vowel sounds of English

[ i: ] (vowel sound) Heed [hi:d]

[ i ] (vowel sound) He’d [hid]

[ ɪ ] (vowel sound) Hid [hɪd]

[ e ] (vowel sound) Head [hed]

[ æ ] (vowel sound) Had [hæd]

[ ʌ ] (vowel sound) Hudd [hʌd]

[ ɜ: ] (vowel sound) Heard [hɜ:d]

[ ɑ: ] (vowel sound) Hard [hɑ:d]

[ ɒ ] (vowel sound) Hod [hɒd]

[ ɔ: ] (vowel sound) Hoard [hɔ:d]

[ ʊ ] (vowel sound) Hood [hʊd]

[ u: ] (vowel sound) Who’d [hu:d]

The schwa [ ə ]- Butter (british) [bʌtə] Writer (british) [ɹaɪtə]

Intonation The variation in pitch while speaking, helps listeners understand questions, statements, excitement, or uncertainty

Syllable e.g. Phonetics: Pho-ne-tics, beautiful: beau-ti-ful

Morpheme e.g. worker: work-er, cats: cat-s

Stress The emphasis (betoning) placed on a particular syllable within a word

Rising intonation Often used for yes/no questions or to show surprise (e.g. "Are you coming?")

Falling intonation Used for statements and commands, signaling finality (e.g., "I'm ready")

Rising-falling intonation Can show certainty or completeness in "wh- questions" and statements (e.g. "Where are you going?"), not genuine, can be found in one unit sentences

Falling-rising intonation Often used for hesitation, reservation, or contradiction (e.g. “It wasn’t John but Tommy who did it”)

A good, intelligible pronunciation has the following elements: Phonemic distinctions, Syllable structure, Word stress, Features of connected speech, Intonation patterns

LIP approach (pronunciation practice) 1. Listening 2. imitation 3. production

Subject-verb agreement Subjects and verbs must agree in number

Noun phrase (subject-verb agreement) "The happy cat is sleeping", head decides singular or plural, head=cat

Pronouns (subject-verb agreement) "He is" "He sleeps", pronoun decides the suffix -s

Clause (subject-verb agreement) "Tom sleeping on my couch made her mad", singular verb form "made"

Prepositional phrase (subject-verb agreement) "In the evening works for me", singular verb form "works"

Coordinated subject (subject-verb agreement) "Tom and billy" 1+1=2, plural form, "The cat or the dogs" closest word decides if it's singular or plural

Dummy subject (subject-verb agreement) It= singular, there= singular or plural. Since "there/it" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb

Modal verbs (subject-verb agreement) No subject-verb agreement, "Tom must go" "They must go" "I must go"

Word order English Subject+verb+object (SVO)

Word order Swedish Verb-second language, the verb always takes the second place in a sentence (V2)

It (dummy subject) Dummy subject that is used when the subject is a clause, often used when talking about the weather and time

There (dummy subject) Dummy subject that is used when the subject is a noun phrase, often indicates that something exists/ is in a particular place

Personal pronoun I, you, he, she, it, me, you, him, her

Reflexive pronoun Myself, yourself

Possessive pronoun my, your, mine, yours

Pronoun who always take a singular verb (subject-verb agremment) Everyone is, everybody is, each girl and boy is

Pronouns that always take a plural verb (subject-verb agreement) Both of the horses are, many are, several people are

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